Curriculum Development and Assessment

EDUL 6020 and 6021

Guidelines for Effective Classroom Evaluation:

Research has shown that there are clear relationships between how and when we assess students and their short and long term achievement. This research is not applicable to all students or all situations, but it can serve as a guide to strategies we can use within the classroom that will most likely benefit students within our classrooms. We do know that assessment design is a crucial piece in planning and that it deserves careful attention. How we design our assessment indicates to present and future students what type of learning we value and what we expect from students. This is the hidden curriculum that we supply for students. We need to be sure that this hidden curriculum is in line with what we want students to know and be able to do.

Why do we need to work on how we evaluate our students ?

• A study of 8,800 test questions showed that almost 80% of test questions are at the knowledge level of Bloom's taxonomy (Fleming and Chambers, 1983).

• Assessments given at the knowledge level do not require transfer, which is a crucial indicator of a student's understanding (Thorndike, 1969).

How does evaluation affect our students?

• Short Term Effects (within a particular lesson or topic)

• Activating prior knowledge

• Focusing student attention on key concepts

• Encouraging active learning and engagement

• Providing opportunities for practice

• Providing feedback and a sense of accomplishment

• Allowing for self assessment

• Medium Term Effects (a unit of study or course)

• Assessing prior knowledge

• Determining students' motivation to and mode of study and choice of learning strategies

• Influencing student's self perception of his/her capability to learn

• Communicating (whether intentionally or unintentionally, correctly or erroneously) the goals and objectives for learning.

• Rating student achievement in the course and thus determining future course of study.

• Long Term Effects (year to year)

• Student ability to retain and apply learned material

• Development of learning styles and skills

• Student motivation to learn

• Student self-perception

Crooks, 1988

Why does testing benefit student learning?

• Testing requires that students return to the content for a second time.

• Testing encourages students to actively process the content.

• Testing focuses the students' attention on the topics, skills and details that were tested and prepares the students to be tested on these items in the future.

What factors determine a student's approach to learning?

- Students tend to work at one of two levels when learning.

• Deep- Active search for meaning and structure that links together different concepts or ideas

• Surface- Memorization of material. Facts and topics are assumed to be unrelated

• Student choice of learning approach is dependent upon their motivation, interest, the way that the topic is introduced, and perceptions of how they will have to use the knowledge later.

• What we emphasis in our tests also influences students' approach to learning.

How do we design classroom assessments to assist learning?

• Design clear and attainable goals. Students are more likely to achieve goals that they clearly perceive. (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984)

• Higher standards for students generally lead to greater student effort unless the standards seem unattainable to students.

• Create opportunities for students to use information that they are learning within a broad cross curricular context.

• Place emphasis on the transfer of new knowledge to new situations in assessments.

• Deemphasize evaluation for the sake of grading. Focus on assessment for the sake of learning.

• Give feedback to students that they can use to improve their achievement.

• Feedback should focus on the student's individual progress in mastering the previously and clearly established goal.

• Feedback must take place in a timely manner while it is still relevant.

• Select item formats based on their suitability for assessing the content to be evaluated. One test format is not necessarily more likely than another to positively affect student achievement.

• Test formally with moderate frequency. Studies reporting student attitudes toward testing frequency showed that students favored more frequent testing and feedback.

• Provide opportunities for students to get credit for correcting or refining corrected work.

• Use short answer format pre or post reading adjunct questions at all levels of Bloom's taxonomy for passages

• Give students multiple opportunities to test and prove their mastery of the content.

How does oral assessment affect student learning?

• Frequency of teacher questioning has been shown to positively relate to student achievement.

• Questions encourage more active engagement in learning.

• Questions provide practice using the content.

• Feedback to student answers clarifies correct responses and corrects student misconceptions.

• The type of questions asked on assessments cues students to what the teacher considers crucial.

What are the most effective strategies for oral assessment?

• Questions should be directed to as many students as possible.

• Phrase questions so that they clearly communicate the task.

• Adjust the difficulty level of questions to receive mostly satisfactory responses.

• Allow several seconds of wait time between the question and the response.

• Provide feedback that clarifies the content of the response.

• Limit the use of praise unless it is specific to the content.

• When using higher order questioning do so consistently over long periods of time and scaffold to help students to be able to answer higher order questions until they are comfortable at that level.

What is the major benefit of feedback?

• To identify and correct errors of knowledge and understanding.

How should feedback be given?

• For incorrect answers to factual questions, give the correct response.

• For incorrect answers to higher cognitive level questions, help students to identify the source of their misunderstanding, or assist students in understanding the basic concepts needed to answer the question.

• Simple specific positive comments are beneficial.

• Harsh criticism is not effective.

• Feedback can also be given to guide students to use more effective strategies for learning the material according to individual learning styles and preferences or the material.

• Give feedback immediately.

• Feedback generally increases what students learn from reading

- unless it is given too soon, ex. The answers are in the back of the book

- The task is too difficult for the students.

How can teachers reduce test anxiety?

• Provide generous time limits

• Avoid distinctive testing conditions relative to the normal classroom.

• Give students specific details about the format, difficulty and nature of the test including examples prior to testing.

• Include tasks within the test that allow each student a reasonable level of success.

• Avoid social comparison when giving feedback.

• Assist students who have particular difficulty with test anxiety by giving them specific strategies relating to the content and the test itself.

How can I build student self-efficacy?

• Emphasize task mastery rather than task engagement. Student work should be graded for the accuracy and quality of the work.

• Individualize feedback to the student considering past performance. Do not compare the student's work to others, compare it to the standard.

• Allow student choice in learning activities to meet learning goals

• Create an environment that favors task goals over ego goals

What are the best practices for using group work within the classroom to increase student achievement?

• If using group work in the classroom, research shows that cooperative group structures in which students work in groups and judgments of success are based on the overall achievement of the group, produce higher levels or achievement.

• In group work, results are better when the groups are small (2-3) students, when the task requires interdependence and when the task is not a simple exercise.

• To increase the benefit of cooperative work on student achievement cooperative incentives can be used. Cooperative incentives reward individuals based on the performance of the group as a whole.

• Encourage tasks that require the active engagement and productive interaction of all participants.

Work Cited:

Crooks, Terence J. (1988). The impact of classroom evaluation practices on students. Review of Educational Research, 58 (4), 438-481.

Group Activity

Evaluate Tyler 's rationale against the research that Crooks presented nearly 40 years later. How do Tyler 's recommendations hold up?

Tyler 's Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction though it was first published in 1949 addresses many of the same concepts as Crooks' The Impact of Classroom Evaluation Practices on Students which was published almost 40 years later in 1988. The major difference in Crooks' article and Tyler 's book is Crooks' focus on research as the basis of decision making. While Crooks includes citation after citation, Tyler 's book is devoid of the specific research citations to back up his statements. It is noteworthy, however, that most of the claims that Tyler made in 1949 are supported by the research that Crooks cites in 1988. Another difference between Crooks' article and Tyler 's book is that Tyler focuses on evaluation's impact on the curriculum, whereas, Crooks focuses on evaluation's impact on student learning. This viewpoint highlights Pinar and associates' claim, "That the Tyler procedure is not a teacher's statement of curriculum development; it is the bureaucrat's" (pg. 149).

Looking specifically at the evaluation portion of Tyler 's text, it is clear that though, he does not indicate any specific research that much of his rationale was confirmed in Crooks' work. Tyler and Crooks' main points in reference to evaluation are as follows:

Topic	Tyler (1949)	Crooks (1988)
Impact of evaluation	Evaluation has a powerful influence upon learning"(124)	"Classroom evaluation has powerful direct and indirect impacts, which may be positive or negative, and thus deserves very thoughtful planning and implementation" (1)
Evaluation to Drive Curriculum	Evaluation is an important operation in curriculum development. Evaluation can help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the planned curriculum.	Evaluation can guide "the choice for further instructional or learning activities to increase mastery" (443)
Role of Evaluation	"The process of evaluation will identify the strengths and weaknesses of the plans" (105). Evaluation is the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being realized by the program of curriculum and instruction. Evaluation is the process for "determining the degree to which these changes in behavior are actually taking place." (106)	Assisting students to learn. Evaluation guides students' "judgment of what is important to learn, affects their motivation and self perceptions of competence, structures their approaches to and timing of personal study, consolidates learning, and affects the development of enduring learning strategies and skills." (467)
Frequency of Evaluation	Evaluation must appraise the behavior of students at minimum at the beginning of the program and at the end of the program so that the amount of change for each student can be determined. It is also important to evaluate the students sometime after the program has ended to grasp how well the students retain the information. Annual evaluations for all students can be used to create a record of progress for students and for objectives.	Test formally with moderate frequency. Some studies show that having at least two more formal tests on a topic is beneficial. Give feedback immediately.
Evaluation Format	Any valid evidence about behaviors that are desired as educational objectives provides an appropriate method of evaluation. Types of evaluation include: observations, interviews, questionnaires, collections of products, samplings.	Select item formats based on their suitability for assessing the content to be evaluated. One test format is not necessarily more likely than another to positively affect student achievement.
Goals and Objectives	Evaluations should begin with the clearly defined objectives.	Design clear and attainable goals. Students are more likely to achieve goals that they clearly perceive. (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984)
Cross curricular teaching	"Learnings which are consistent with each other, which are in a sense integrated and coherent, reinforce each other" (41)	Create opportunities for students to use information that they are learning within a broad cross curricular context.
Evaluations as reflections of the objectives	Each evaluation should be checked against the objectives that it is supposed to assess to see whether it is appropriate to test that objectives.	Evaluations cue students in to the hidden curriculum.
Knowledge versus Learning Skills	"It is not enough that the student shall understand important facts and principles and remember them. He must also learn where to go to get dependable information as he needs it." (52)	"The knowledge that students accumulate during schooling may be less important than the learning skills and habits they develop." (467)
Analytic Evaluations versus Grades: Assessment FOR Learning	Appraisals should be analytic rather than a single score, so that it may be helpful for improving the curriculum Evaluations must be objective, valid and reliable. "Evaluation can be used continuously during the year as a basis for identifying particular points needing further attention with particular groups of students and as a basis for giving individual help or planning individual programs for students in the light of their particular progress in the educational program" (124-125)	Deemphasize evaluation for the sake of grading. Focus on assessment for the sake of learning. Give feedback to students that they can use to improve their achievement. Feedback should focus on the student's individual progress in mastering the previously and clearly established goal. Emphasize task mastery rather than task engagement. Student work should be graded for the accuracy and quality of the work.
Assessment Improvement and Modification	The assessment should be a continually improved instrument for getting evidence about the degree to which students are obtaining educational objectives.	"Students should be given regular opportunities to practice and use the skills and knowledge that are the goals of the program, and to obtain feedback on their performance." (470)
Bloom's Taxonomy	"It should be clear that the kind of experience the student needs to have in order to get the understanding of important facts and principles is more than that required to memorize these things; it will involve analysis, interpretation, and application to various illustrations to see the meaning." (pg. 51)	Assessments given at the knowledge level do not require transfer, which is a crucial indicator of a student's understanding (Thorndike, 1969).
Opportunities to Improve	"We must expect to use evaluation procedures to determine what changes are actually taking place in students and where we are achieving our curriculum objectives and where we must make still further modifications in order to get an effective educational program" (125).	Give students multiple opportunities to test and prove their mastery of the content. Provide opportunities for students to get credit for correcting or refining corrected work.
Measuring objectives	"It is very necessary to check each proposed evaluation device against the objectives that are being aimed at and to see whether it uses situations likely to evoke the sort of behavior which is desired as educational objectives" (113).	"Some of these important outcomes may be hard to evaluate, but it is important that we find ways to assess them" (470)

It is clear that even if Tyler was looking at education from the perspective of the bureaucrat, his view must have been pretty clear. According to the research presented by Crooks, Tyler was right on track in most of his statements about evaluation. However, Tyler does not address the issue of evaluation to the extent that Crooks does in his text. Crooks is much more specific in his discussion of evaluation. He looks at it from the perspective of the classroom and the student and includes specific strategies for format, group work, oral questioning, higher order thinking skills, and adjunct questioning. Though Crooks has extensive research to support his strategies, he clearly acknowledges that the guidelines he presents are simplifications based on research and that they are not appropriate for every situation or student. Tyler , on the other hand, clearly views evaluation primarily as a measurement of the success of curriculum choices within a school. The perspectives and scopes of the two authors though different are complementary. Together they provide the broad view of how evaluation fits into the curriculum and the details of how it affects the student.

Works Cited:

Crooks, Terence J. (1988). The impact of classroom evaluation practices on students. Review of Educational Research, 58 (4), 438-481.

Pinar, William F., Reynolds, William M., Slattery, Patrick, and Taubman, Peter M. (1995). Understanding curriculum. NY: Peter Lang.

Tyler, Ralph W. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1949.

Heliocentric vs. Geocentric- Thesis and Antithesis

Standards :

• Knowledge: S6E1: Students will explore current scientific views of the universe and how those views evolved.

• Relate the Nature of Science to the progression of basic historical scientific theories (geocentric and heliocentric) as they describe our solar system and the Big Bang as it describes the formation of the universe.

• Behavior: The student produces a multi-paragraph persuasive essay that:

• Engages the reader by establishing a context, creating a speaker's voice, and otherwise developing reader interest.

• States a clear position of a proposition or proposal.

• Supports the position with organized and relevant evidence.

• Excludes information and arguments that are irrelevant.

• Creates an organizing structure appropriate to a specific purpose, audience, and context.

• Anticipates and addresses readers' concerns and counter-arguments.

• Provides a sense of closure to the writing.

• Character / Dispositions:

• Citizenship - Freedom of conscience and expression: the right to hold beliefs, whether religious, ethical or political, and to express one's views.

• Tolerance : the allowable deviation from a standard. Indulgence for beliefs or practices differing from or conflicting with one's own.

• Accountability: responsibility for one's actions and their consequences.

• Commitment: being emotionally, physically or intellectually bound to something.

• Perseverance and diligence : adherence to actions and their consequences.

Questions and Concepts:

Significant Question : Knowing that scientific ideas can change over time, how should we respond to ideas that conflict with our current beliefs?

Concept : Antithesis, Thesis, Synthesis

Deepening Questions :

How did society's perspective of Galileo change as new evidence was brought forward?

How did Galileo respond to the fact that people did not believe in him?

What character traits did Galileo possess that helped him to stay true to his beliefs?

Do you think that Galileo was a man of good character? Why or why not?

How did society's perspective of Copernicus change as new evidence was brought forward?

What conditions would necessitate going against the social norms?

What is a maverick and how can he/she impact society (better or worse)?

Are there any current scientific or social views that you think need to be revisited?

How do you respond when people question your beliefs?

How does change affect your life?

How is our perception of change affected by passing time?

What strategies have you used to try to change someone's mind? Have you been successful? Why or why not?

What are some ideas that are present within your community that need to be questioned?

Learning Experiences and Assessments:

Engagement:
E1 Experiencing the Masterwork- Raphael Prime Mover (Astronomy) (1509-11)

Prime Mover

• Observation: What do you first notice when you look at the painting?

• Why do you think that it is called Prime Mover? What is PRIME? What is MOVER?

• How might this painting be different if it was painted today?

• What is moving?

• Interpretation

• What do you think the angels represent?

• What do you think that the woman represents?

• Which view of the universe might this represent?

• Application / Prediction

• Reflect on a time when you felt strongly about something and your friends did not agree with you. Describe how you felt and how your friends reacted.

• Can we move things that do not want to move?

• Can we change a person's mental model or beliefs?

• Task/Pre-assessment- What do you think the universe looks like? Draw a diagram that illustrates your prediction.

Inquiry :

• I1 Inquiry Center #1- Thesis- Copernicus- Geocentric View- Examine the evidence that was presented by Copernicus. Draw and label a diagram of the geocentric view of the universe and describe the reasons that people thought the universe was arranged in this way.

• I2 Inquiry Center #2- Antithesis- Galileo- Heliocentric View- Examine the evidence that was presented by Galileo. Draw and label a diagram of the geocentric view of the universe and describe the reasons that people thought the universe was arranged in this way.

• I3 Inquiry Center #3-Synthesis- Writing Center- Choose one of the two views of the universe and write a persuasive essay that meets the requirements of the rubric to convince someone that your view is correct. Be sure to give evidence. What do you think were the key things that caused people to change their mental models about the universe?

• I4 Inquiry Center #4- Brainstorm mental models (ideas or practices) that are scientific or social within our society that you think need to change. What could you do to create change?

• I5 Inquiry Center #5- Continuing Exploration- Pluto (Planet or Not? )

Creations : Students will choose 2. One activity from each list.

• List 1-

• Create your own version of Prime Mover based on current scientific thought.

• Picture Book- Write a picture book that you could use to help other students to change their ideas or practices in a way that would positively impact society.

• Explore another scientific idea. Create a timeline of scientific thought for your concept. How have people's ideas/thoughts about your topic changed over time? Present the scientific idea through a book or skit.

• Create a children's book that traces the progression of a scientific idea from its conception to its current state. Correct a misconception in your book. Books should be tied to an appropriate grade level for the standard that they address.

• Trail of Galileo by the Inquisition, reenactment

- List 2-

- Galileo's Character-

• Create a timeline of the events that took place in Galileo's life.

• At what point on your timeline do you think change occurred.

• What character traits did Galileo have that helped him to be an agent of change?

• Describe how each character trait helped Galileo to be an agent of change.

• How could each character trait help you to adapt to change?

• What events in Galileo's life do you think would have been the most difficult, why?

• Choose another historical figure who challenged scientific beliefs. Answer the above questions for that character.

Service Learning:

• Community Service- Students will visit their feeder elementary schools to read their books or act out their skits and teach the science concepts. Students will teach the younger students to find the gist of a story and to debate two sides of an idea.

• Community Exploration- Students will question mental models in their community and come up with goals for change in their community.

• Community Action- This will depend upon the interests and goals of the students.